2019年8月18日 星期日

pthread 多執行緒平行化程式設計入門教學與範例

Source: https://blog.gtwang.org/programming/pthread-multithreading-programming-in-c-tutorial/

這裡介紹如何在 C 語言中使用 pthread 開發多執行緒的平行化程式,用多顆 CPU 加速計算。

現在電腦的 CPU 都具備多顆核心,因此在使用 C 語言撰寫計算用的程式時,若能夠善用多核新的 CPU 進行平行運算,可以讓計算速度大幅提昇。

若要將 C 語言的程式平行化,最基本的方式就是使用 POSIX 執行緒(簡稱 pthread)來實做多執行緒的程式,以下是 pthread 函式庫的用法教學,以及實際的範例程式碼。


Pthread 多執行緒

pthread 的 pthread_create 函數可以用來建立新的執行緒,並以函數指標指定子執行緒所要執行的函數,子執行緒在建立之後,就會以平行的方式執行,在子執行緒的執行期間,主執行緒還是可以正常執行自己的工作,最後主執行緒再以 pthread_join 函數等待子執行緒執行結束,處理後續收尾的動作。
以下是一個 pthread 的 hello world 範例程式碼:
#include 
#include 
#include 

// 子執行緒函數
void* child(void* data) {
  char *str = (char*) data; // 取得輸入資料
  for(int i = 0;i < 3;++i) {
    printf("%s\n", str); // 每秒輸出文字
    sleep(1);
  }
  pthread_exit(NULL); // 離開子執行緒
}

// 主程式
int main() {
  pthread_t t; // 宣告 pthread 變數
  pthread_create(&t, NULL, child, "Child"); // 建立子執行緒

  // 主執行緒工作
  for(int i = 0;i < 3;++i) {
    printf("Master\n"); // 每秒輸出文字
    sleep(1);
  }

  pthread_join(t, NULL); // 等待子執行緒執行完成
  return 0;
}
此程式在主執行緒中建立一個子執行緒,並將 "Child" 這個字串傳遞給子執行緒,然後讓兩個執行緒同時輸出文字。
使用 gcc 編譯時,要加上 -lpthread 參數:
gcc hello.c -lpthread -o hello
編譯好之後,執行之:
./hello
Master
Child
Master
Child
Master
Child

資料傳遞

在許多的平行化應用程式中,我們都會需要傳遞一些資料給子執行緒進行計算,而在計算完之後再將結果傳回來,而子執行緒在傳回資料時通常都會以 malloc 配置記憶體空間來存放傳回的資料,以下是一個典型的範例:
#include 
#include 
#include 

// 子執行緒函數
void *child(void *arg) {
   int *input = (int *) arg; // 取得資料
   int *result = malloc(sizeof(int) * 1); // 配置記憶體
   result[0] = input[0] + input[1]; // 進行計算
   pthread_exit((void *) result); // 傳回結果
}

// 主程式
int main() {
   pthread_t t;
   void *ret; // 子執行緒傳回值
   int input[2] = {1, 2}; // 輸入的資料

   // 建立子執行緒,傳入 input 進行計算
   pthread_create(&t, NULL, child, (void*) input);

   // 等待子執行緒計算完畢
   pthread_join(t, &ret);

   // 取得計算結果
   int *result = (int *) ret;

   // 輸出計算結果
   printf("%d + %d = %d\n", input[0], input[1], result[0]);

   // 釋放記憶體
   free(result);

   return 0;
}
執行的輸出為:
1 + 2 = 3
這個程式中,子執行緒呼叫 malloc 配置了記憶體空間,而主執行緒在使用完該記憶體空間之後,負責釋放掉不再使用的記憶體。

由主執行緒管理記憶體

多執行緒之間的記憶體管理其實很不方便,也很容易不小心寫錯,造成記憶體流失(memory leak)問題,若想避免這個問題,可以統一由主執行緒來管理記憶體,以下是一個範例:
#include 
#include 

// 自己定義的資料結構
typedef struct my_data {
   int a;
   int b;
   int result;
} my_data;

// 子執行緒函數
void *child(void *arg) {
   my_data *data=(my_data *)arg; // 取得資料

   int a = data->a;
   int b = data->b;
   int result = a + b; // 進行計算

   data->result = result; // 將結果放進 data 中
   pthread_exit(NULL);
}

// 主程式
int main() {
   pthread_t t;
   my_data data;

   data.a = 1;
   data.b = 2;

   // 建立子執行緒,傳入 data 進行計算
   pthread_create(&t, NULL, child, (void*) &data);

   // 等待子執行緒計算完畢
   pthread_join(t, NULL);

   // 從 data.result 取回計算結果
   printf("%d + %d = %d\n", data.a, data.b, data.result);

   return 0;
}
這個例子中,我們使用自己定義的資料結構(struct),將所有的輸入資料與輸出結果欄位都包裝在一個 my_data 中,以指標的方式傳入子執行緒中,讓子執行緒在計算完成後,將結果直接寫入 my_data 的 result 欄位,這樣就不需要另外配置記憶體空間,而主執行緒也可以直接取得計算結果。

互斥鎖(Mutex)

在平行化的程式中,如果發生多個執行緒需要同時存取同一個位置的資料時,就有可能會因為同時存取而產生錯誤,在下面這個例子中,我們定義一個全域變數 counter,用來紀錄某個量的總和,而我們希望在多個執行緒中同時計算,然後統一將加總的結果放在其中。
#include 
#include 
#include 

// 計數器
int counter = 0;

// 子執行緒函數
void* child() {
  for(int i = 0;i < 3;++i) {
    int tmp = counter;
    sleep(1); // 故意讓它延遲一下
    counter = tmp + 1;
    printf("Counter = %d\n", counter);
  }
  pthread_exit(NULL);
}

// 主程式
int main() {
  pthread_t t1, t2;
  pthread_create(&t1, NULL, child, NULL);
  pthread_create(&t2, NULL, child, NULL);
  pthread_join(t1, NULL);
  pthread_join(t2, NULL);
  return 0;
}
在這段程式碼中,我們放了兩個子執行緒,每個子執行緒用迴圈跑了三次計算,所以最後的 counter 預期應該是 6,但由於我們將 counter 的值取出來,計算出新的值之後在放回去,兩個子執行緒同時都這樣做的話,計算結果就會不如預期:
Counter = 1
Counter = 1
Counter = 2
Counter = 2
Counter = 3
Counter = 3
這個問題的解決方法就是加入一個互斥鎖(mutex),將那些不可以被多個執行緒同時執行的程式碼片段,用互斥鎖包起來,當一個執行緒執行到該處時,就會先上鎖,避免其他的執行緒進入,若其他的執行緒同時也要執行該處的程式碼時,就必須等待先前的執行緒執行完之後,才能接著進入(也就是排隊輪流使用的概念),這樣就可以避免多個執行緒混雜執行,讓結果出錯的問題。
#include 
#include 
#include 

// 計數器
int counter = 0;

// 加入 Mutex
pthread_mutex_t mutex1 = PTHREAD_MUTEX_INITIALIZER;

// 子執行緒函數
void* child() {
  for(int i = 0;i < 3;++i) {
    pthread_mutex_lock( &mutex1 ); // 上鎖
    int tmp = counter;
    sleep(1);
    counter = tmp + 1;
    pthread_mutex_unlock( &mutex1 ); // 解鎖
    printf("Counter = %d\n", counter);
  }
  pthread_exit(NULL);
}

// 主程式
int main() {
  pthread_t t1, t2;
  pthread_create(&t1, NULL, child, NULL);
  pthread_create(&t2, NULL, child, NULL);
  pthread_join(t1, NULL);
  pthread_join(t2, NULL);
  return 0;
}
Counter = 1
Counter = 2
Counter = 3
Counter = 4
Counter = 5
Counter = 6
在 pthread_mutex_lock 與 pthread_mutex_unlock 之間的程式碼就是一次只容許一個執行緒執行的部份,也就是說雖然是平行化的程式,但是被包住的這部份只能以單一執行緒來執行,所以在設計程式時,要盡可能減少被互斥鎖包住的程式碼,才能讓程式執行效能更好。

旗標(Semaphore)

如果我們現在有兩個執行緒,分別負責一份工作的前半段與後半段,也就是說第一個執行緒會把它處理好的資料,發包給第二個執行緒繼續處理,而兩個執行緒的處理速度有可能不同,這種狀況我們就可以使用旗標(Semaphore)的方式來串接。
旗標本身就是一個計數器,也就是紀錄目前尚未處理的工作數量,我們可以使用 sem_wait 來判斷是否有尚未處理的工作,當工作數量大於 0 時,sem_wait 就會讓執行緒進入處理,並且把工作數量遞減 1,而如果工作數量為 0 的時候,則會讓執行緒等待,直到有新的工作來臨時,才讓執行緒進入。
另外在產生工作的執行緒中,可以使用 sem_post 放入新的工作(也就讓將計數器遞增 1),這樣就可以將多個執行緒串接起來處理大型的工作流程。
以下是一個簡單的範例:
#include 
#include 
#include 
#include 

sem_t semaphore; // 旗標
int counter = 0;

// 子執行緒函數
void* child() {
  for(int i = 0;i < 5;++i) {
    sem_wait(&semaphore); // 等待工作
    printf("Counter = %d\n", ++counter);
    sleep(1);
  }
  pthread_exit(NULL);
}

// 主程式
int main(void) {

  // 初始化旗標,僅用於本行程,初始值為 0
  sem_init(&semaphore, 0, 0);

  pthread_t t;
  pthread_create(&t, NULL, child, NULL);

  // 送出兩個工作
  printf("Post 2 jobs.\n");
  sem_post(&semaphore);
  sem_post(&semaphore);
  sleep(4);

  // 送出三個工作
  printf("Post 3 jobs.\n");
  sem_post(&semaphore);
  sem_post(&semaphore);
  sem_post(&semaphore);

  pthread_join(t, NULL);

  return 0;
}
Post 2 jobs.
Counter = 1
Counter = 2
Post 3 jobs.
Counter = 3
Counter = 4
Counter = 5
在這個程式中,主執行緒負責派送工作,工作有時候多、有時候少,而子執行緒則是以每秒處理一個工作的速度,消化接收到的工作。
旗標在使用前要先以 sem_init 初始化,其第二個參數是指定是否要讓其他的行程(process)共用旗標,這裡我們是單一行程、多執行緒的程式,所以第二個參數設定為 0 即可;第三個參數則是設定旗標的初始值。
旗標本身只是紀錄工作的數量,並且控制執行緒的執行,並沒有負責資料的配送,通常我們可以自己實做一個資料佇列(queue),配合旗標來計算索引,讓子執行緒從佇列中取得資料進行處理。

Source: 

Pragma

#print a message from the C preprocessor?

Source: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/3826832/is-there-a-portable-way-to-print-a-message-from-the-c-preprocessor

The warning directive is probably the closest you'll get, but it's not entirely platform-independent:
#warning "C Preprocessor got here!"
AFAIK this works on most compilers except MSVC, on which you'll have to use a pragma directive:
#pragma message ( "C Preprocessor got here!" )

BASH array

Source: https://www.playworld.com.tw/%E3%80%8Ebash-shell%E3%80%8F%E5%A6%82%E4%BD%95%E4%BD%BF%E7%94%A8%E9%99%A3%E5%88%97-array-%E7%B4%A2%E5%BC%95%E5%BC%8F-indexed-%E9%97%9C%E8%81%AF%E5%BC%8F-associative-%E7%A8%8B%E5%BC%8F%E7%AF%84/


Bash 支援兩種陣列 (Array) 的型態

1. Indexed array

2. Associative array

第一種 Indexed array 是以數字做陣列的索引,從 0 開始
範例:
#!/bin/sh
#
# 底下有兩種指定陣列成員的方式
# 選一種使用
#
# 方式一
#
HTC_phone_list[0]="HTC U11"
HTC_phone_list[1]="HTC U Ultra"
HTC_phone_list[2]="HTC U Play"
HTC_phone_list[3]="HTC One A9s"

#
# 方式二
#
HTC_phone_list=("HTC U11" "HTC U Ultra" "HTC U Play" "HTC One A9s")

#
# 印出陣列中的成員
#
# ${#HTC_phone_list[@]}: 加上 "#" 表示陣列的長度
#
for((i=0; i<${#HTC_phone_list[@]}; i++))
do
    echo ${HTC_phone_list[i]}
done


第二種 Associative array 是以字串做陣列的索引

範例:
#!/bin/sh
#
# 底下有兩種指定陣列成員的方式
# 選一種使用
# 注意: 請勿省略 declare -A
#

#
# 方式一
#
declare -A Score
Score[bob]=85
Score[john]=70
Score[andy]=90

#
# 方式二
#
declare -A Score=([bob]=85 [john]=70 [andy]=90)

# 輸入要查詢的名字
read -p "Please input a name: " name
found=0

#
# 搜尋 Score 陣列的索引是否有此名字
#
# ${!Score[@]}: 加上 "!" 表示陣列的索引
#
for key in ${!Score[@]}
do
    if [ "$key" == "$name" ]; then
        found=1
        break
    fi
done

#
# 印出搜尋結果
#
if [ "$found" -eq "1" ]; then
    echo "The score of $name is ${Score[$name]}"
else
    echo "The name of \"$name\" cannot be found."
fi


Source: https://go-linux.blogspot.com/2007/03/basharray.html

bash下array的幾種使用方法

#!/bin/bash
#一舉將變數設定到陣列中
array=(Redhat Novell MicroSoft Sun IBM HP Dell)

#利用for loop將陣列中的變數印出
for i in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
do
echo "array[$i]=${array[$i]}"
done

#設定間隔符號為: 搭配$*將陣列的值一口氣輸出
IFS=:
echo "${array[*]}"

#設定間隔符號為換行,搭配$*將陣列的值一口氣輸出
IFS=$'\n'
echo "${array[*]}"

#將陣列中的值利用$@一口氣輸出與$*不同的是,不會將值合併成單一字串
echo "${array[@]}"

#印出陣列中有幾筆資料
echo "${#array[@]}"

執行結果:
array[0]=Redhat
array[1]=Novell
array[2]=MicroSoft
array[3]=Sun
array[4]=IBM
array[5]=HP
array[6]=Dell
Redhat:Novell:MicroSoft:Sun:IBM:HP:Dell
Redhat
Novell
MicroSoft
Sun
IBM
HP
Dell
Redhat Novell MicroSoft Sun IBM HP Dell
7

2019年8月2日 星期五

ADB TCPIP

[8150]
  • 1. adb tcpip 5555
    2. adb connect 192.168.43.10
    3. adb -s 192.168.43.10 shell​
    adb_tcpip.png

2019年7月29日 星期一

Linux C programming guide.


(https://www.gnu.org/software/libc/manual/html_node/Error-Codes.html)
2.2 Error Codes 

The error code macros are defined in the header file errno.h. All of them expand into integer constant values. Some of these error codes can’t occur on GNU systems, but they can occur using the GNU C Library on other systems.
Macro: int EPERM
“Operation not permitted.” Only the owner of the file (or other resource) or processes with special privileges can perform the operation.
Macro: int ENOENT
“No such file or directory.” This is a “file doesn’t exist” error for ordinary files that are referenced in contexts where they are expected to already exist.
Macro: int ESRCH
“No such process.” No process matches the specified process ID.
Macro: int EINTR
“Interrupted system call.” An asynchronous signal occurred and prevented completion of the call. When this happens, you should try the call again.
You can choose to have functions resume after a signal that is handled, rather than failing with EINTR; see Interrupted Primitives.
Macro: int EIO
“Input/output error.” Usually used for physical read or write errors.
Macro: int ENXIO
“No such device or address.” The system tried to use the device represented by a file you specified, and it couldn’t find the device. This can mean that the device file was installed incorrectly, or that the physical device is missing or not correctly attached to the computer.
Macro: int E2BIG
“Argument list too long.” Used when the arguments passed to a new program being executed with one of the exec functions (see Executing a File) occupy too much memory space. This condition never arises on GNU/Hurd systems.
Macro: int ENOEXEC
“Exec format error.” Invalid executable file format. This condition is detected by the exec functions; see Executing a File.
Macro: int EBADF
“Bad file descriptor.” For example, I/O on a descriptor that has been closed or reading from a descriptor open only for writing (or vice versa).
Macro: int ECHILD
“No child processes.” This error happens on operations that are supposed to manipulate child processes, when there aren’t any processes to manipulate.
Macro: int EDEADLK
“Resource deadlock avoided.” Allocating a system resource would have resulted in a deadlock situation. The system does not guarantee that it will notice all such situations. This error means you got lucky and the system noticed; it might just hang. See File Locks, for an example.
Macro: int ENOMEM
“Cannot allocate memory.” The system cannot allocate more virtual memory because its capacity is full.
Macro: int EACCES
“Permission denied.” The file permissions do not allow the attempted operation.
Macro: int EFAULT
“Bad address.” An invalid pointer was detected. On GNU/Hurd systems, this error never happens; you get a signal instead.
Macro: int ENOTBLK
“Block device required.” A file that isn’t a block special file was given in a situation that requires one. For example, trying to mount an ordinary file as a file system in Unix gives this error.
Macro: int EBUSY
“Device or resource busy.” A system resource that can’t be shared is already in use. For example, if you try to delete a file that is the root of a currently mounted filesystem, you get this error.
Macro: int EEXIST
“File exists.” An existing file was specified in a context where it only makes sense to specify a new file.
Macro: int EXDEV
“Invalid cross-device link.” An attempt to make an improper link across file systems was detected. This happens not only when you use link (see Hard Links) but also when you rename a file with rename (see Renaming Files).
Macro: int ENODEV
“No such device.” The wrong type of device was given to a function that expects a particular sort of device.
Macro: int ENOTDIR
“Not a directory.” A file that isn’t a directory was specified when a directory is required.
Macro: int EISDIR
“Is a directory.” You cannot open a directory for writing, or create or remove hard links to it.
Macro: int EINVAL
“Invalid argument.” This is used to indicate various kinds of problems with passing the wrong argument to a library function.
Macro: int EMFILE
“Too many open files.” The current process has too many files open and can’t open any more. Duplicate descriptors do count toward this limit.
In BSD and GNU, the number of open files is controlled by a resource limit that can usually be increased. If you get this error, you might want to increase the RLIMIT_NOFILE limit or make it unlimited; see Limits on Resources.
Macro: int ENFILE
“Too many open files in system.” There are too many distinct file openings in the entire system. Note that any number of linked channels count as just one file opening; see Linked Channels. This error never occurs on GNU/Hurd systems.
Macro: int ENOTTY
“Inappropriate ioctl for device.” Inappropriate I/O control operation, such as trying to set terminal modes on an ordinary file.
Macro: int ETXTBSY
“Text file busy.” An attempt to execute a file that is currently open for writing, or write to a file that is currently being executed. Often using a debugger to run a program is considered having it open for writing and will cause this error. (The name stands for “text file busy”.) This is not an error on GNU/Hurd systems; the text is copied as necessary.
Macro: int EFBIG
“File too large.” The size of a file would be larger than allowed by the system.
Macro: int ENOSPC
“No space left on device.” Write operation on a file failed because the disk is full.
Macro: int ESPIPE
“Illegal seek.” Invalid seek operation (such as on a pipe).
Macro: int EROFS
“Read-only file system.” An attempt was made to modify something on a read-only file system.
Macro: int EMLINK
“Too many links.” The link count of a single file would become too large. rename can cause this error if the file being renamed already has as many links as it can take (see Renaming Files).
Macro: int EPIPE
“Broken pipe.” There is no process reading from the other end of a pipe. Every library function that returns this error code also generates a SIGPIPE signal; this signal terminates the program if not handled or blocked. Thus, your program will never actually see EPIPE unless it has handled or blocked SIGPIPE.
Macro: int EDOM
“Numerical argument out of domain.” Used by mathematical functions when an argument value does not fall into the domain over which the function is defined.
Macro: int ERANGE
“Numerical result out of range.” Used by mathematical functions when the result value is not representable because of overflow or underflow.
Macro: int EAGAIN
“Resource temporarily unavailable.” The call might work if you try again later. The macro EWOULDBLOCK is another name for EAGAIN; they are always the same in the GNU C Library.
This error can happen in a few different situations:
  • An operation that would block was attempted on an object that has non-blocking mode selected. Trying the same operation again will block until some external condition makes it possible to read, write, or connect (whatever the operation). You can use select to find out when the operation will be possible; see Waiting for I/O.Portability Note: In many older Unix systems, this condition was indicated by EWOULDBLOCK, which was a distinct error code different from EAGAIN. To make your program portable, you should check for both codes and treat them the same.
  • A temporary resource shortage made an operation impossible. fork can return this error. It indicates that the shortage is expected to pass, so your program can try the call again later and it may succeed. It is probably a good idea to delay for a few seconds before trying it again, to allow time for other processes to release scarce resources. Such shortages are usually fairly serious and affect the whole system, so usually an interactive program should report the error to the user and return to its command loop.
Macro: int EWOULDBLOCK
“Operation would block.” In the GNU C Library, this is another name for EAGAIN (above). The values are always the same, on every operating system.
C libraries in many older Unix systems have EWOULDBLOCK as a separate error code.
Macro: int EINPROGRESS
“Operation now in progress.” An operation that cannot complete immediately was initiated on an object that has non-blocking mode selected. Some functions that must always block (such as connect; see Connecting) never return EAGAIN. Instead, they return EINPROGRESS to indicate that the operation has begun and will take some time. Attempts to manipulate the object before the call completes return EALREADY. You can use the select function to find out when the pending operation has completed; see Waiting for I/O.
Macro: int EALREADY
“Operation already in progress.” An operation is already in progress on an object that has non-blocking mode selected.
Macro: int ENOTSOCK
“Socket operation on non-socket.” A file that isn’t a socket was specified when a socket is required.
Macro: int EMSGSIZE
“Message too long.” The size of a message sent on a socket was larger than the supported maximum size.
Macro: int EPROTOTYPE
“Protocol wrong type for socket.” The socket type does not support the requested communications protocol.
Macro: int ENOPROTOOPT
“Protocol not available.” You specified a socket option that doesn’t make sense for the particular protocol being used by the socket. See Socket Options.
Macro: int EPROTONOSUPPORT
“Protocol not supported.” The socket domain does not support the requested communications protocol (perhaps because the requested protocol is completely invalid). See Creating a Socket.
Macro: int ESOCKTNOSUPPORT
“Socket type not supported.” The socket type is not supported.
Macro: int EOPNOTSUPP
“Operation not supported.” The operation you requested is not supported. Some socket functions don’t make sense for all types of sockets, and others may not be implemented for all communications protocols. On GNU/Hurd systems, this error can happen for many calls when the object does not support the particular operation; it is a generic indication that the server knows nothing to do for that call.
Macro: int EPFNOSUPPORT
“Protocol family not supported.” The socket communications protocol family you requested is not supported.
Macro: int EAFNOSUPPORT
“Address family not supported by protocol.” The address family specified for a socket is not supported; it is inconsistent with the protocol being used on the socket. See Sockets.
Macro: int EADDRINUSE
“Address already in use.” The requested socket address is already in use. See Socket Addresses.
Macro: int EADDRNOTAVAIL
“Cannot assign requested address.” The requested socket address is not available; for example, you tried to give a socket a name that doesn’t match the local host name. See Socket Addresses.
Macro: int ENETDOWN
“Network is down.” A socket operation failed because the network was down.
Macro: int ENETUNREACH
“Network is unreachable.” A socket operation failed because the subnet containing the remote host was unreachable.
Macro: int ENETRESET
“Network dropped connection on reset.” A network connection was reset because the remote host crashed.
Macro: int ECONNABORTED
“Software caused connection abort.” A network connection was aborted locally.
Macro: int ECONNRESET
“Connection reset by peer.” A network connection was closed for reasons outside the control of the local host, such as by the remote machine rebooting or an unrecoverable protocol violation.
Macro: int ENOBUFS
“No buffer space available.” The kernel’s buffers for I/O operations are all in use. In GNU, this error is always synonymous with ENOMEM; you may get one or the other from network operations.
Macro: int EISCONN
“Transport endpoint is already connected.” You tried to connect a socket that is already connected. See Connecting.
Macro: int ENOTCONN
“Transport endpoint is not connected.” The socket is not connected to anything. You get this error when you try to transmit data over a socket, without first specifying a destination for the data. For a connectionless socket (for datagram protocols, such as UDP), you get EDESTADDRREQ instead.
Macro: int EDESTADDRREQ
“Destination address required.” No default destination address was set for the socket. You get this error when you try to transmit data over a connectionless socket, without first specifying a destination for the data with connect.
Macro: int ESHUTDOWN
“Cannot send after transport endpoint shutdown.” The socket has already been shut down.
Macro: int ETOOMANYREFS
“Too many references: cannot splice.”
Macro: int ETIMEDOUT
“Connection timed out.” A socket operation with a specified timeout received no response during the timeout period.
Macro: int ECONNREFUSED
“Connection refused.” A remote host refused to allow the network connection (typically because it is not running the requested service).
Macro: int ELOOP
“Too many levels of symbolic links.” Too many levels of symbolic links were encountered in looking up a file name. This often indicates a cycle of symbolic links.
Macro: int ENAMETOOLONG
“File name too long.” Filename too long (longer than PATH_MAX; see Limits for Files) or host name too long (in gethostname or sethostname; see Host Identification).
Macro: int EHOSTDOWN
“Host is down.” The remote host for a requested network connection is down.
Macro: int EHOSTUNREACH
“No route to host.” The remote host for a requested network connection is not reachable.
Macro: int ENOTEMPTY
“Directory not empty.” Directory not empty, where an empty directory was expected. Typically, this error occurs when you are trying to delete a directory.
Macro: int EPROCLIM
“Too many processes.” This means that the per-user limit on new process would be exceeded by an attempted fork. See Limits on Resources, for details on the RLIMIT_NPROC limit.
Macro: int EUSERS
“Too many users.” The file quota system is confused because there are too many users.
Macro: int EDQUOT
“Disk quota exceeded.” The user’s disk quota was exceeded.
Macro: int ESTALE
“Stale file handle.” This indicates an internal confusion in the file system which is due to file system rearrangements on the server host for NFS file systems or corruption in other file systems. Repairing this condition usually requires unmounting, possibly repairing and remounting the file system.
Macro: int EREMOTE
“Object is remote.” An attempt was made to NFS-mount a remote file system with a file name that already specifies an NFS-mounted file. (This is an error on some operating systems, but we expect it to work properly on GNU/Hurd systems, making this error code impossible.)
Macro: int EBADRPC
“RPC struct is bad.”
Macro: int ERPCMISMATCH
“RPC version wrong.”
Macro: int EPROGUNAVAIL
“RPC program not available.”
Macro: int EPROGMISMATCH
“RPC program version wrong.”
Macro: int EPROCUNAVAIL
“RPC bad procedure for program.”
Macro: int ENOLCK
“No locks available.” This is used by the file locking facilities; see File Locks. This error is never generated by GNU/Hurd systems, but it can result from an operation to an NFS server running another operating system.
Macro: int EFTYPE
“Inappropriate file type or format.” The file was the wrong type for the operation, or a data file had the wrong format.
On some systems chmod returns this error if you try to set the sticky bit on a non-directory file; see Setting Permissions.
Macro: int EAUTH
“Authentication error.”
Macro: int ENEEDAUTH
“Need authenticator.”
Macro: int ENOSYS
“Function not implemented.” This indicates that the function called is not implemented at all, either in the C library itself or in the operating system. When you get this error, you can be sure that this particular function will always fail with ENOSYS unless you install a new version of the C library or the operating system.
Macro: int ENOTSUP
“Not supported.” A function returns this error when certain parameter values are valid, but the functionality they request is not available. This can mean that the function does not implement a particular command or option value or flag bit at all. For functions that operate on some object given in a parameter, such as a file descriptor or a port, it might instead mean that only that specific object (file descriptor, port, etc.) is unable to support the other parameters given; different file descriptors might support different ranges of parameter values.
If the entire function is not available at all in the implementation, it returns ENOSYS instead.
Macro: int EILSEQ
“Invalid or incomplete multibyte or wide character.” While decoding a multibyte character the function came along an invalid or an incomplete sequence of bytes or the given wide character is invalid.
Macro: int EBACKGROUND
“Inappropriate operation for background process.” On GNU/Hurd systems, servers supporting the term protocol return this error for certain operations when the caller is not in the foreground process group of the terminal. Users do not usually see this error because functions such as read and write translate it into a SIGTTIN or SIGTTOU signal. See Job Control, for information on process groups and these signals.
Macro: int EDIED
“Translator died.” On GNU/Hurd systems, opening a file returns this error when the file is translated by a program and the translator program dies while starting up, before it has connected to the file.
Macro: int ED
“?.” The experienced user will know what is wrong.
Macro: int EGREGIOUS
“You really blew it this time.” You did what?
Macro: int EIEIO
“Computer bought the farm.” Go home and have a glass of warm, dairy-fresh milk.
Macro: int EGRATUITOUS
“Gratuitous error.” This error code has no purpose.
Macro: int EBADMSG
“Bad message.”
Macro: int EIDRM
“Identifier removed.”
Macro: int EMULTIHOP
“Multihop attempted.”
Macro: int ENODATA
“No data available.”
Macro: int ENOLINK
“Link has been severed.”
Macro: int ENOMSG
“No message of desired type.”
Macro: int ENOSR
“Out of streams resources.”
Macro: int ENOSTR
“Device not a stream.”
Macro: int EOVERFLOW
“Value too large for defined data type.”
Macro: int EPROTO
“Protocol error.”
Macro: int ETIME
“Timer expired.”
Macro: int ECANCELED
“Operation canceled.” An asynchronous operation was canceled before it completed. See Asynchronous I/O. When you call aio_cancel, the normal result is for the operations affected to complete with this error; see Cancel AIO Operations.
Macro: int EOWNERDEAD
“Owner died.”
Macro: int ENOTRECOVERABLE
“State not recoverable.”
The following error codes are defined by the Linux/i386 kernel. They are not yet documented.
Macro: int ERESTART
“Interrupted system call should be restarted.”
Macro: int ECHRNG
“Channel number out of range.”
Macro: int EL2NSYNC
“Level 2 not synchronized.”
Macro: int EL3HLT
“Level 3 halted.”
Macro: int EL3RST
“Level 3 reset.”
Macro: int ELNRNG
“Link number out of range.”
Macro: int EUNATCH
“Protocol driver not attached.”
Macro: int ENOCSI
“No CSI structure available.”
Macro: int EL2HLT
“Level 2 halted.”
Macro: int EBADE
“Invalid exchange.”
Macro: int EBADR
“Invalid request descriptor.”
Macro: int EXFULL
“Exchange full.”
Macro: int ENOANO
“No anode.”
Macro: int EBADRQC
“Invalid request code.”
Macro: int EBADSLT
“Invalid slot.”
Macro: int EDEADLOCK
“File locking deadlock error.”
Macro: int EBFONT
“Bad font file format.”
Macro: int ENONET
“Machine is not on the network.”
Macro: int ENOPKG
“Package not installed.”
Macro: int EADV
“Advertise error.”
Macro: int ESRMNT
“Srmount error.”
Macro: int ECOMM
“Communication error on send.”
Macro: int EDOTDOT
“RFS specific error.”
Macro: int ENOTUNIQ
“Name not unique on network.”
Macro: int EBADFD
“File descriptor in bad state.”
Macro: int EREMCHG
“Remote address changed.”
Macro: int ELIBACC
“Can not access a needed shared library.”
Macro: int ELIBBAD
“Accessing a corrupted shared library.”
Macro: int ELIBSCN
“.lib section in a.out corrupted.”
Macro: int ELIBMAX
“Attempting to link in too many shared libraries.”
Macro: int ELIBEXEC
“Cannot exec a shared library directly.”
Macro: int ESTRPIPE
“Streams pipe error.”
Macro: int EUCLEAN
“Structure needs cleaning.”
Macro: int ENOTNAM
“Not a XENIX named type file.”
Macro: int ENAVAIL
“No XENIX semaphores available.”
Macro: int EISNAM
“Is a named type file.”
Macro: int EREMOTEIO
“Remote I/O error.”
Macro: int ENOMEDIUM
“No medium found.”
Macro: int EMEDIUMTYPE
“Wrong medium type.”
Macro: int ENOKEY
“Required key not available.”
Macro: int EKEYEXPIRED
“Key has expired.”
Macro: int EKEYREVOKED
“Key has been revoked.”
Macro: int EKEYREJECTED
“Key was rejected by service.”
Macro: int ERFKILL
“Operation not possible due to RF-kill.”

Macro: int EHWPOISON
“Memory page has hardware error.”

2019年7月19日 星期五

Real time monitor changes in a file.

tail -F logfile
tail -f /var/log/{messages,kernel,dmesg,syslog}